Since his discovery in 1991, Oetzi the iceman's true identity has been shrouded in myth and mystery. Just a faceless corpse that has embodied a bygone era of humankind.
But experts have finally worked out what the world's most famous natural mummy actually looked like
Old timer: Until now Oetzi the iceman's true identity has been shrouded in myth and mystery - just a faceless corpse that has embodied a bygone era of humankind
Exhibit: The model is on show at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy, alongside his mummified remains
It was a route once trod by legionnaires as they marched across a conquered land.
But, eventually, the Romans left Britain and the magnificent highway they created was reclaimed by nature and seemingly lost for ever.
Now, some 2,000 years after it was built, it has been uncovered in the depths of a forest in Dorset.
And, remarkably, it shows no sign of the potholes that blight our modern roads.
Constructed by the Roman invaders as part of a route from London (Londinium) to Exeter (Isca), the 85ft wide earthwork stands more than 15ft high and consists of a sweeping road with deep ditches at the side.
It was so densely covered by trees, however, that although its existence was known about, it simply could not be found until now.
Between deep ditches: Experts believe the road's scale was to deliberately intimidate the locals - the site of a Roman legion marching along the road would have had the desired effect
Scientists had to cut down Norway Spruce fir trees in Puddletown Forest in order to uncover the half-mile long section of road between London and Exeter.Artist's impression: The Roman road being built in the Dorset forest 1,900 years ago
Cancer is a man-made disease fuelled by the excesses of modern life, a study of ancient remains has found.
Tumours were rare until recent times when pollution and poor diet became issues, the review of mummies, fossils and classical literature found.
A greater understanding of its origins could lead to treatments for the disease, which claims more than 150,000 lives a year in the UK.
Despite slivers of tissue from hundreds of Egyptian mummies being rehydrated, just one case of cancer has been confirmed. This is even though tumours should be better preserved by mummification than healthy tissues.
Fossil evidence is also sparse, with just a few dozen – mostly disputed – examples, Nature Reviews Cancer journal reports.
Even the study of thousands of Neanderthal bones has provided only one example of a possible cancer.
And references to cancer-like problems in ancient Egyptian texts are more likely to have been caused by leprosy or varicose veins.
Researcher Michael Zimmerman, a visiting professor at Manchester University, said: ‘The virtual absence of malignancies in mummies must be interpreted as indicating their rarity in antiquity. This indicates that cancer-causing factors are limited to societies affected by modern industrialisation.’
Scientists found no signs of cancer in their extensive study of mummies apart from one isolated case
Human history is a unique blend of successes and failures, victories and vanquishes and of love and war. Over the period of years, humans have fought various wars that have led to various other events that ignited more and more enmity between the people. Massacres are one of such events that have led to the death of many innocent lives and of those who started this massacres in order to the quench their thirst for revenge and for their human ego. Throughout history you will find numerous big and small massacre events that have changed the world, but these 10 are surely the biggest massacres in the history of mankind.
1. Nankin Massacre
The Nanking Massacre is also known as the Rape of Nanking where hundreds of thousands of civilians were brutally murdered and raped in the city of Nanking which was the former capital city of the Republic of China. The massacre went on for a period of six weeks where the soldiers of Imperial Japanese Army entered the city of Nanking and start killing people of China. The Nanking Massacre is considered to be the worst massacre in human history because more than 80 thousand men and women were killed, tortured and raped in a period of six weeks.
Scientists believe they have discovered the missing link between humans and the ape-like creatures we evolved from.
The homonid, the evolutionary branch of primates that led to humans, will be revealed when a two million-year-old skeleton of a child is unveiled this week.
The skeleton was discovered in the Sterkfontein region of South Africa - an area knows as 'the Cradle of Humanity' - by Professor Lee Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand.
Prof. Berger and his colleagues have remained silent about the significance of their find, but anticipation is high among the scientific community ahead of an official announcement on Thursday.
It's hoped the story of human evolution might be re-written should the discovery fill in crucial gaps in the chain of evolution.
Remnants of the species have been discovered previously, but previous finds were seldom more than a few bone fragments.
Experts who have seen the skeleton have reported that it shares features with Homo habilis, and revealed that it could shed light on when our ancestors began walking on two legs.
Prof. Phillip Tobias, a human anatomist and anthropologist who was one of the first to identify Homo habilis as a human species in 1964, has celebrated the 'wonderful' and 'exciting' discovery.
'To find a skeleton as opposed to a couple of teeth or an arm bone is a rarity,' he told The Telegraph. 'It is one thing to find a lower jaw with a couple of teeth, but it is another thing to find the jaw joined onto the skull, and those in turn uniting further down with the spinal column, pelvis and the limb bones.
It is not a single find, but several specimens representing several individuals.'
The skeltons were discovered in a limestone cave, which is believed to have shielded them from the elements and allowed them to remain intact.
They are said to link Australopithecus - from 3.9million years ago - with Homo habilis, which began appearing 2.5million years ago.
Link: Homo habilis lived about 2.5million years ago
Evolution: The latest discover could fill in a missing piece of the puzzle explaining how apes changed over millions of years to become humans
Scientists have discovered an ancient dinosaur-like creature, that lived 10million years before the oldest known dinosaurs roamed Earth.
They reconstructed an almost complete skeleton of a species called Asilisaurus kongwe from the remains of at least 14 individuals at a sing site in Tanzania.
The 240-million-year-old African find has forced scientists to re-think what they know about dinosaur evolution.
Asilisaurus, whose name means 'ancient lizard ancestor' in Swahili and Greek, lived in the Middle Triassic era.
Measuring three to 10 feet long and weighing up to 4st 7lbs, the creature was dinosaur-like in appearance but in fact belonged to a sister group known as silesaurs.
The relationship between dinosaurs and silesaurs was similar to that between humans and chimpanzees, say scientists.
A skeletal reconstruction of Asilisaurus kongwe, with a human silhouette for scale
Artist's impression of the oldest known dinosaur relative, Asilisaurus kongwe.The 240-million-year-old African find has forced scientists to re-think what they know about dinosaur evolution
Stellar sea cow exticnt since 1768. The defenseless beasts.
Sea cow grow upto 8meter long and weight almost 3 tons. Sudden extinct of sea cow is directly due to human population hunting to extinct. Descrption by Mr Stellar the founder of sea cow are this animal is always in the sea never come out to the beach. Black and thick.Has no teeth but bone jaw .The head is small compare with the body.Completey tame.
Cave lion largest lion lived ever. Extinct 2000 year ago.
Well known as the Balkan tiger.Well drawn in prehistoric arts. A subspecises of the larger tiger.Estimated bigger than current tiger about 10-20%. Exticnt during the Wijrm Glaciation. Properly died due to food shortage and ice age.
Caspian Tiger 3rd larget tiger extinct since 1970
Caspian tiger or the bengal tiger is the most western tiger found in Irag,Afganisthan , mongolia , turkey , and region around that areas. Population boom in those region and scare of hunting preys force the tiger to extinct and also by hunting. Rare sighting of bengal tiger still are reported.
Aurochs a very large type of cattle extinct 1627
Europe most famous extinct animal. Believed to be eloved in India and Migrated to Europe.Attempt to maintain the species by the diallow public hunting of this cattle and also royals hiring gamekeepers to keep the cattle and excemptioni of tax.However , they still extinct , believed to be by sickness and bad animal housekeeping.
Great Pengiun extinct 1844
75 cm in hight,weight 5 kg believe to be larget Penguin. Hunted to extinct because of its big body easy target and better meat , skin and oil per bird.
Tasmanian Tiger extinct since 1936
Largest know marsupial in modern man history.Found in Australia and New Guinea.Extinction again due to human hunting and bounty given to hunt them down.Known to be aggressive. The introduction of dogs in the population also cause the demise of Tasmanian tiger.
Tyrannosaurus Rex Extinct 65 million years ago.
Largest Carnivor of all time , meausing 44 feet long and 1 7 feet tall,weight upto 7 tons.33 species are found some in skeletons and some with fossilied fresh. From 2 legs with 2 fingers only used to hook fresh while the enourmous jaw mouth will snap and break the preys.
Quagga - half horse half zebra extinct since 1883
Most sad extinct animal from afrika.Subspecies to zebra.Once found in abundance numbers in south afrika.Sadly hunt into extinctition for meat skin and to preserve feed for domesticated animals.The last captive Qangga was in Magista Zoo amsterdam.Initially thought to be zebra but too late when extinct reliaze it was a totally different plain zebra.First extinct animal to be studied with its DNA.
Irish Deer, latest deer that ever lived. exticnt 7700 years ago.
Irish Elk or Giant Deer was the largest ever deer lived on earth. It exticnts is still debated whether by over hunting or by it large anteler unable to travel to forest for food.
Dodo the archetype of extinct species. (Extinct since 17century)
Dodo is the mixture between pegions and doves. Exticnt during the recorded history of mankind.Directly human hunting cause this once abundant bird to extincts.
10.Charlotte Brontë
The eldest novelist of the three famous Brontë sisters, Charlotte Brontë had a dark family past. You know what that means? Daddy issues. Case in point, she married her father’s caretaker when her father was dying. Regardless, her wit and intelligence could match any gentleman of her time. Her book Jane Eyre sparked an early feminist movement and made her very popular in London’s high-class social circles. Still, she remained a homebody, preferring to curl up with a book of poetry. Imagine her reading to you by firelight with her impeccable English accent.
9.Joan Of Arc
There’s something sexy about a fair French girl who could kick your ass. Add the suit of armor and things just get kinky. This hot historical woman grew up a farm girl during the Hundred Years’ War between England and France. At 12 years old, divine visions told her to drive the English from her homeland. By 16, she led French forces in a number of successful attacks against the British. She had to wear men’s clothing and cut her hair short to not be seen as a sexual object. Still, she managed to inspire an army of men twice her age to follow her.
No.8 - Marie Antoinette
At 14 years old, Marie’s parents married her off to the 16 year-old Louis XVI. The young Austrian’s high fashion sense, height, fair skin, pale blond hair, and deep blue eyes stole the French people’s hearts. Known for such feminine virtues as charity and musical ability, this hottest of historical women could also hang with the guys; she loved horseback riding and gambling. Louis XVI was a lucky man -- too bad he was a dud in the sack. This led many rumors about the Queen’s affairs with both men and women, making her one of the naughtiest women on this list.
No.7 - Soong Ching Ling
Known in China as “mother of the nation,” Soong Ching Ling assured her place in history by advocating for internationalism and peace. The Chinese people loved her beauty, fashion and intelligence. Having gone to the United States for college, she had an uncommon perspective for a Chinese woman in the early 20th century. Refusing to take the quiet role expected of most Chinese women of her era, she openly criticized the government even though her family members were political leaders. After the Communist Party took control, they honored her activism and later named her Honorary President of the People's Republic of China.
No.6 - Queen Elizabeth I
An early inspiration for the Pussycat Dolls, Elizabeth sang “I Don’t Need A Man” way back in the 16th Century. Known as The Virgin Queen (although that’s doubtful), this hot historical woman ruler attracted more suitors than a pack of Angelina Jolies. Elizabeth’s serious game of “playing hard to get” drove men mad. Guys always want what they can’t have, especially when it’s a sexy, all-powerful queen. It’s said that her last courtship ended when she was aged 48; it was with François, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. That mature minx!
No.5 - Princess Diana
Known for her beauty, fashion sense, charisma, and high-profile charity work, Diana became a worldwide celebrity after her marriage to Prince Charles. She breathed new life into the stuffy British aristocracy, wearing elegant gowns that screamed rather than whispered. During her lifetime, people often called her the world’s most photographed person. Unfortunately, that also led to her death. A BBC poll named her the third greatest Briton of all time, ahead of Charles Darwin and Margaret Thatcher. Of course, she’s a lot hotter.
No.4 - Mata Hari
A Dutch-Frisian exotic dancer in Paris during World War I, Mata Hari also worked as a double agent. She moved to France from her native Netherlands and won acclaim as a dancer with her promiscuity, flirtatiousness and willingness to flaunt her body in a way that was rare in the early 1900s. Since the Netherlands remained neutral during WWI, Mata Hari could move freely between borders as a Dutch subject. She was a courtesan to many high-ranking allied military officers during this time. In 1917, French intelligence agents intercepted a German message describing their spy in Paris known as H-21. They later identified H-21 as Mata Hari and executed her by firing squad. There’s always something sexy about the Bond villainess, and this hot historical woman was the real thing.
No.3 - Martha Washington
Chock this one up to science being used for good and not evil. A team of historians, curators and forensic anthropologists have concluded that our very first First Lady was not the droopy double-chinned frump we previously thought. She was a hottie! Using a computerized age-regression portrait, they peeled away the wrinkles and revealed a slim, sexy, brunette Helen-Hunt lookalike in her 20s. No wonder Washington killed so many Redcoats and crossed the Delaware. He had to get home to America’s first pinup girl.
No.2 - Cleopatra
In recent years, historians have wondered about the extent of Cleopatra’s beauty. Certain depictions of her from the era show her nose to be quite large. However, back then a strong nose showed dominance and strength of character. Cassius Dio, a Roman historian, wrote of this hot historical woman: "For she was a woman of surpassing beauty; she also possessed a most charming voice and a knowledge of how to make herself agreeable to every one.” Big nose or not, she charmed and bore the sons of the most powerful men of the Roman Empire: Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. The latter forgot he had a wife back home and married Cleopatra.
No.1 - Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
A stunning beauty well before the White House, Jackie made her society debut in 1947, causing a Hearst columnist to dub her “Debutante of the Year.” It didn’t take long for the wandering eyes of John F. to catch sight of her. At age 31, Jackie O. became one of the youngest First Ladies in history. Cultured and intelligent and with the looks of a supermodel, the American people immediately loved her. Her love for art and music brought hipness to the Pennsylvania Avenue that hadn’t been there before. She remains the sexiest First Lady ever. Sorry Michelle, you’re hot, but Jackie is a tough act to follow.
RELATED POST:- Related Posts : amazing, History, Sexy
Heresy trials, convictions and death by burning at the stake awaited the Templar leadership in France where the hatred of Philip IV prevailed over an indecisive Pope. In many countries, the Templars ‘melted away’, except in Portugal where they were long established and members of the royal family had joined the Order of Christ.
Thunderstorms Build on the Templar Horizon -
As the 13th century draws to a close, the Templar situation is grave. France was overcome with jealousy and hate against the Templars who would not finance Philip IV’s war against England. Christendom was driven out of the Middle East and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was defeated. The French would withdraw their support of the crusades to retake Jerusalem. Nonetheless, in Europe and the Middle East, the Templars remained wealthy and powerful. They owned vast tracts of land, castles, churches, farms, vineyards, a fleet of ships, and for a time the entire island of Cyprus.
The fortress city of Acre fell on May 18, 1291 after a six week siege, although the Templars held out in their quarter for another ten days. The remaining crusader cities in the Levant fell by mid-August, 1291. The Templars relocated to Cyprus and attempted to continue their military adventures from this island base. They acquired fleets, and attacked Egypt and Syria, but failed to establish themselves on the Island of Ruad in the Tortosa which they held only briefly. Recruits were everywhere, and individual motivation remained religious salvation, but the Order was adrift. The world that demanded the ‘Ferocious Charge’ had disappeared, the Rule of the Templar Order as a military manual had become irrelevant.
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Templar knights pray
Templar knights pray at the grave of St. George / Germany medieval ms
Robertus Monachus: History of the first Crusade,
St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. Sang. 658, 1465.
Digital image - renzodionigi / flikr
Heresy trials, convictions and death by burning at the stake awaited the Templar leadership in France where the hatred of Philip IV prevailed over an indecisive Pope. In many countries, the Templars ‘melted away’, except in Portugal where they were long established and members of the royal family had joined the Order of Christ.
Thunderstorms Build on the Templar Horizon -
As the 13th century draws to a close, the Templar situation is grave. France was overcome with jealousy and hate against the Templars who would not finance Philip IV’s war against England. Christendom was driven out of the Middle East and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was defeated. The French would withdraw their support of the crusades to retake Jerusalem. Nonetheless, in Europe and the Middle East, the Templars remained wealthy and powerful. They owned vast tracts of land, castles, churches, farms, vineyards, a fleet of ships, and for a time the entire island of Cyprus.
Crusader fortress city of Acre / map
Crusader fortress city of Acre
Map - Marc Carrie (c) 2007
Templar quarter in crusader fortress city of Acre / map
Templar quarter in crusader fortress city of Acre
Map Marc Carrie (c) 2007
The fortress city of Acre fell on May 18, 1291 after a six week siege, although the Templars held out in their quarter for another ten days. The remaining crusader cities in the Levant fell by mid-August, 1291. The Templars relocated to Cyprus and attempted to continue their military adventures from this island base. They acquired fleets, and attacked Egypt and Syria, but failed to establish themselves on the Island of Ruad in the Tortosa which they held only briefly. Recruits were everywhere, and individual motivation remained religious salvation, but the Order was adrift. The world that demanded the ‘Ferocious Charge’ had disappeared, the Rule of the Templar Order as a military manual had become irrelevant.
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In 1291, Templar Knights once again defended Acre, but this time were defeated and all Templar knights within the city walls died. The Holy Land was lost, 20,000 Templars had died in its defense.
Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master, took office in 1292 and toured Europe to garner support for the Knights Templar. Pope Boniface VIII granted the Templars the same privileges on Cyprus that they had in the Holy Land. Edward I of England and Charles II of Naples were particularly sympathetic but Antioch – the last Templar fortress – fell to Islam in 1299.
Philip IV of France plots the Templar Downfall -
Military defeats in the Holy Land aside, the Templars remained extremely powerful because of their pan-European banking system and the vast estates and tracts of land that they owned. Their terrible strategic mistake proved to be refusing a loan request from the French King Philip IV for his war with England. Philip quickly followed with a request to the Pope to excommunicate the Templars that Bonifice VIII refused. Philip then accused the Pope of heresy. Rescued by the people of Agni, the aged Boniface VIII died from shock due to the physical ‘rough and tumble’. His successor died eight months after becoming Pope and may have been poisoned by Philip’s agent. French and Italian cardinals appointed Bertrand de Both (Clement V), a childhood friend of Philip IV, as the next Pope, and he agreed to investigate the Templars.
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From Denmark to Spain, from Ireland to Cyprus, the Templars owned vast properties. They were the premier bankers and financiers to much of Europe.
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There were other reasons for Philip IV to hate the Templars in addition to their refusal of his loan request. As the Teutonic Knights did when they founded Prussia, the Templars wanted to set up their own state in either Languedoc (southern France) or on Cyprus. Philip had inherited land in the Champagne region where the Templar headquarters were located. In 1306, they supported a coup on Cyprus that forced Henry II to abdicate in favor of his brother Amalric of Tyre. Struggling to create a unified French state, Philip IV plotted the downfall of the Knights Templar with a reluctant Pope.
On October 13 (Friday) 1306, Philip IV rounded up every Templar he could find in France and only a few escaped. This event is the origin of our superstition that Friday 13th is an ‘unlucky day’, perhaps a cursed day. While the terrible Inquisition had yet to be born, in the early 14th century the Vatican had a group of interrogators and clergy who were available throughout Europe to investigate charges of heresy. Drawing blood was not allowed, so suspects were tortured by any means that avoided leaving a visible wound.
France / Philip IV – gold coin
Some Templars quickly admitted to the charges made against them, believing that to be the first step in a well known formality that led to rich ransoms being paid for prestige prisoners who were then set free. Sadly Philip IV had a relentlessness of his own and was ‘dead’ serious in his mission to destroy the Knights Templar. Tortured until they confessed to heresy, the French Templar leadership was then burnt at the stake.
The Templars did ask the Pope for help but all that he did was send letters to King Philip. The Templars’ great wealth, failure to secure the Holy Land against repeated Muslim attacks – an unrealistic expectation given the small number of fighting knights – and a very complex, almost congenial relationship with Islam in spite of their battle ferocity, may have threatened the Pope who at times was weak and insecure.
Some Templars quickly admitted to the charges made against them, believing that to be the first step in a well known formality that led to rich ransoms being paid for prestige prisoners who were then set free. Sadly Philip IV had a relentlessness of his own and was ‘dead’ serious in his mission to destroy the Knights Templar. Tortured until they confessed to heresy, the French Templar leadership was then burnt at the stake.
The Templars did ask the Pope for help but all that he did was send letters to King Philip. The Templars’ great wealth, failure to secure the Holy Land against repeated Muslim attacks – an unrealistic expectation given the small number of fighting knights – and a very complex, almost congenial relationship with Islam in spite of their battle ferocity, may have threatened the Pope who at times was weak and insecure.
Pope Clement V rides away from the Mother Church
The female figure in this manuscript illustration is a female saint who represents the Mother Church. The symbolism is unusual. Pope Clement V has turned his back on the Mother Church and is riding away from her. Was the artist a Templar, or Templar supporter, who believed that when Pope Clement V decided to support Philip IV, he had turned his back on the true Mother Church whom the Templars had supported with unswerving devotion and battlefield ferocity?
Phillip IV relentlessly built up the case against the Templars, who were unable to adequately defend themselves.
Public opinion in Paris was decidedly against the Templars. In response, and abetted by bullying from King Philip, Pope Clement V issued a bull that ordered all Christian monarchs in Europe to arrest all Templars and seize their assets. Most kings did not believe the charges but the opportunity to take Templar wealth was a prize impossible to ignore. Proceedings were begun in England, Iberia, Germany, Italy and Cyprus. Likely not believing the charges he lodged at the 1308 Tours Assembly, the opportunity for Philip to free France from the debt owed the Templars had immediate benefits and was too great to ignore. France was going broke and Philip’s hold on the throne was weakening.
Templars burned at the stake /
Chronik, “Von der Schöpfung der Welt bis” 1384 – “Creation of the World until 1384
Philip IV reacted ferociously by creating a situation wherein Pope Clement V would be forced to take a final decision during the Council of Vienna in 1312. Subdued by the French King, the Pope issued a bull on March 22, 1312 that abolished the Knights Templar although he did state that this action was not the condemnation of heresy. He then ordered a general arrest throughout Europe to ‘find the truth’. Did the Pope ‘sell out’ the Templars knowing full well they were innocent of heresy and the other charges lodged against them? It appears that Pope Clement V could not stand up to the cold, hateful mania that Philip IV unleashed upon the Knights Templar.
Templar execution – burned at the stake / medieval ms
The trial period of the Templars took 5 years with protests occurring throughout Europe. More than 5,000 arrests were made in France. Thirty-eight, mostly elderly Templars were tortured, 105 ‘confessed’ and 69 leaders were burnt at the stake. Ordinary soldiers who confessed were given prison terms, then allowed to join other Orders. Beyond France, Templars were arrested in England, Sicily, and Cyprus. Outside France, the Templars were often treated with kindness and leniency. In spite of the arrests in Aragon and Castille, the strongest Templar support was in Iberia.
Jacques de Molay and Geoffrey de Charney burned at the stake, March 18, 1314 / Chronicle of France or St. Denis – 14th century
In France in 1314, Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master of the Templars, was convicted as a relapsed heretic. He cursed the king and Pope and challenged them to appear before God before the year’s end. Geoffrey de Charney and the Grand Master were roasted horrifically and slowly over a fire on the evening of March 18, 1314, on the Isle des Juifs. Within 7 months, Philip IV had fallen from a horse and died. The Pope himself lived only one month after the execution. The legend of Templar magical powers was noticeably strengthened.
Seal of Philip IV / 13th century
Scandal had enveloped the Templars and seriously damaged their reputation and integrity. The Vatican feared that further delay would give the Templars opportunity to ’squander’ the great wealth lavished upon them by the Church. Aside from belief in and continued support of the Templars and their cause, the kings of Europe awaited the seizure of the Templar assets with mixed emotions. Templar lands and accounts were seized, but many were very skeptical, convinced there was only a mercenary motive for the persecution. Philip IV only informed the Pope very late in the plot. Perhaps the bottom line was that the French crown was in a financial crisis, owed money to the Templars and it was Philip’s duty to purify his realm. Then again…?
Phillip IV, King of France, was successful. Trials were held, mostly in France, and the last two Grand Masters were burned alive in 1314. The Knights Templar appeared to be destroyed, but did they survive elsewhere?
Question 1 / Philip IV -
There are questions – mysteries yet to be solved – about this period of severe persecution against the Knights Templar, particularly in France. There are noticeable contradictions in the actions of Philip IV although most history focuses on his demonstrated ‘hatred’ for the Templars. Ironically, he had signed an alliance against the Pope with the Templars in 1303. And the day before that fateful Friday 13th, Philip has asked Grand Master Jacques de Molay to be a pall-bearer at the funeral of the King’s sister. Why did the King of France then turn against the Knights Templar with extreme anger and violence? Or were these actions of Philip only subtle maneuvering intended to keep the Knights Templar off guard? Was the Templar persecution by Philip IV really just about a debt owed by the throne and cold hearted banking, or was there something else the French king felt must be destroyed ?
Question 2 / The Chinon Parchment -
France – Chinon Castle / Moulin Tower – Keep
Ironically, Pope Clement V absolved the Knights Templar in 1308 by official decree as attested to in the rediscovered Chinon Parchment. The Chinon Parchment remained hidden in the Vatican Secret Archives until rediscovered by scholar Barbara Frale in 2002 – see Source #3. Note that ‘secret’ applied to these archives does not have the usual meaning. ‘Secret archives’ at the Vatican only indicates that this library is that of the Pope and not a department of the Roman Curia.
The Act of Chinon parchment records the absolution given to Jacques de Molay and other heads of the Knights Templar after they had repented and asked to be forgiven by the Church. The leading members of the Order were reinstated in Catholic Communion and re-admitted to receive the sacraments. The Act of Chinon represents Pope Clement V’s belief that he could guarantee the survival of the Knights Templar, although he had planned a radical reform that would include merger into one body with the Knights Hospitaller.
Act of Chinon, 1308 / Vatican Secret Archives
Vatican parchment
Pope Clement V – audience
Ironically, Pope Clement V had absolved the Order in 1308 by official decree as attested to in the rediscovered Chinon Parchment. The Chinon parchment was not circulated, and we have to assume that this decree was unknown to European kings at this time. The Templar persecution went forward and we are left with a large question. Why did Pope Clement V absolve the Order of heresy in an official decree, then ensure that decree would be hidden away for several centuries?
Heresy and Secret Knowledge – Question 3 / What was Baphomet?
Charges of Heresy included the usual list: worshiping an idol; spitting, trampling, or urinating on the cross; while naked, being kissed obscenely by the receptor on the lips, navel and base of the spine; eating ashes of the dead; and impregnating virgins. This is ‘same-old, same-old’, the Vatican’s shopping list of charges that were always lodged against ‘heretics’. However in the Templar case, there is an interesting addition to the list of heresies.
Baphomet / stone sculpture, Convento de Cristo, Tomar Portugal – 16th century
Relief sculpture
One charge stands out for its uniqueness and interest – worship of a ‘magical’ head – although there is no ‘hard evidence that the Templars did so. Sometimes called ‘Baphomet’, some believed the image was a Muslim idol, possibly representing Muhammed. This head has numerous descriptions and it is not possible to decide what it looked like. Take your pick: a mystical head with three faces, head with four feet, a face with no feet and/or horns, or skull encrusted with jewels. Any of these could be the revered relic of a former grand master, John the Baptist, Euphemia, one of Ursula’s eleven maidens or Hugues de Payens.
To Be Continued -
If the Templars had found the Dead Sea Scrolls, as some believe, and had learned secretive rituals and esoteric knowledge possessed only by the Essenes, and/or some had converted to Sufi Islam, then we have an inner circle of Templars who were very knowledgeable about transcendental mystical truths. That is knowledge that engenders fear, if a sense of it leaks into the world-at-large which forever persecutes transcendental, tolerant, knowledgeable religiosity.
Templars Playing Chess / “Livre des Echecs” by Alphonse le Sage (Alfonso X), 1283
Medieval ms painting
Many Templars did survive accusations of heresy and persecution by Philip IV. A tiny minority of the Knights Templar were burned at the stake. Unfortunately, this small figure included the Order’s leadership in France. Overall, there is no controversy about Templar survival. Outside France, trials were much less frequent and often led to a verdict of ‘not guilty’ or sentence with mild conditions such as a demand to enroll in another military order.
Also outside the borders of France, the Pope transferred a great deal of Templar property to the Knights Hospitaller, who accepted many Templar knights into their membership. The Kingdom of Aragon had been an early supporter of the Knights Templar and, together with the Order of Montesa, acquired Templar assets. In Portugal, the Knights Templar had established themselves in 1128 and long enjoyed the support and friendship of the royal family. They would continue for a long time in Portugal, where the name of the Order was changed to the Order of Christ. In the two centuries to follow, the Order of Christ in Portugal had an extraordinary influence upon Portugal and the world.
A longer and more detailed version of this article is online at ahrtp.com. The first article in this series at EG looks at Templar origins, the Ferocious Charge, and their fighting in Near East on behalf of the crusades. The next article will look at Templar survival and transformation in Portugal and Spain. Members of the royal family joined the Order of Christ in Portugal as did Prince Henry the Navigator, and Vasco da Gama. Portugal and the Order of Christ catalyzed the Age of Discovery for Europe and thereby changed the world forever.
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